Scientific Resources

OBJECTIVE Vitamin D deficiency has been linked to increased risk of multiple sclerosis (MS) and poor outcome. However,the specific role that vitamin D plays in MS still remains unknown. In order to identify potential mechanisms underlying vitamin D effects in MS,we profiled epigenetic changes in vitamin D receptor (VDR) gene to identify genomic regulatory elements relevant to MS pathogenesis. METHODS Human T cells derived from whole blood by negative selection were isolated in a set of 23 relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients and 12 controls matched by age and gender. DNA methylation levels were assessed by bisulfite cloning sequencing in two regulatory elements of VDR. mRNA levels were measured by RT-qPCR to assess changes in VDR expression between patients and controls. RESULTS An alternative VDR promoter placed at exon 1c showed increased DNA methylation levels in RRMS patients (median 30.08%,interquartile range 19.2%) compared to controls (18.75%,9.5%),p-valuetextless0.05. Moreover,a 6.5-fold increase in VDR mRNA levels was found in RRMS patients compared to controls (p-valuetextless0.001). CONCLUSIONS An alternative promoter of the VDR gene shows altered DNA methylation levels in patients with multiple sclerosis,and it is associated with VDR mRNA upregulation. This locus may represent a candidate regulatory element in the genome relevant to MS pathogenesis. View Publication

Although CD31 expression on human thymocytes has been reported,a detailed analysis of CD31 expression at various stages of T cell development in the human thymus is missing. In this study,we provide a global picture of the evolution of CD31 expression from the CD34(+) hematopoietic precursor to the CD45RA(+) mature CD4(+) and CD8(+) single-positive (SP) T cells. Using nine-color flow cytometry,we show that CD31 is highly expressed on CD34(+) progenitors and stays high until the early double-positive stage (CD3(-)CD4(+)CD8α(+)β(-)). After β-selection,CD31 expression levels become low to undetectable. CD31 expression then increases and peaks on CD3(high)CD4(+)CD8(+) double-positive thymocytes. However,following positive selection,CD31 expression differs dramatically between CD4(+) and CD8(+) lineages: homogeneously high on CD8 SP but lower or negative on CD4 SP cells,including a subset of CD45RA(+)CD31(-) mature CD4(+) thymocytes. CD31 expression on TCRγδ thymocytes is very similar to that of CD4 SP cells. Remarkably,there is a substantial subset of semimature (CD45RA(-)) CD4 SP thymocytes that lack CD31 expression. Moreover,FOXP3(+) and ICOS(+) cells are overrepresented in this CD31(-) subpopulation. Despite this CD31(-)CD45RA(-) subpopulation,most egress-capable mature CD45RA(+) CD4 SP thymocytes express CD31. The variations in CD31 expression appear to coincide with three major selection processes occurring during thymopoiesis: β-selection,positive selection,and negative selection. Considering the ability of CD31 to modulate the TCR's activation threshold via the recruitment of tyrosine phosphatases,our results suggest a significant role for CD31 during T cell development. View Publication

Type I IFNs are key mediators of immune defense against viruses and bacteria. Type I IFNs were also previously implicated in protection against fungal infection,but their roles in antifungal immunity have not been thoroughly investigated. A recent study demonstrated that bacterial and fungal β-glucans stimulate IFN-β production by dendritic cells (DCs) following detection by the Dectin-1 receptor,but the effects of β-glucan-induced type I IFNs have not been defined. We investigated whether type I IFNs regulate CD8 T cell activation by fungal β-glucan particle-stimulated DCs. We demonstrate that β-glucan-stimulated DCs induce CD8 T cell proliferation,activation marker (CD44 and CD69) expression,and production of IFN-γ,IL-2,and granzyme B. Moreover,we show that type I IFNs support robust CD8 T cell activation (proliferation and IFN-γ and granzyme B production) by β-glucan-stimulated DCs in vitro and in vivo due to autocrine effects on the DCs. Specifically,type I IFNs promote Ag presentation on MHC I molecules,CD86 and CD40 expression,and the production of IL-12 p70,IL-2,IL-6,and TNF-α by β-glucan-stimulated DCs. We also demonstrate a role for autocrine type I IFN signaling in bacterial LPS-induced DC maturation,although,in the context of LPS stimulation,this mechanism is not so critical for CD8 T cell activation (promotes IFN-γ production but not proliferation or granzyme B production). This study provides insight into the mechanisms underlying CD8 T cell activation during infection,which may be useful in the rational design of vaccines directed against pathogens and tumors. View Publication

Increasing amounts of pathogen replication usually lead to a proportionate increase in size and effector differentiation of the CD8(+) T cell response,which is attributed to increased Ag and inflammation. Using a murine CMV that is highly sensitive to the antiviral drug famciclovir to modulate virus replication,we found that increased virus replication drove increased effector CD8(+) T cell differentiation,as expected. Paradoxically,however,increased virus replication dramatically decreased the size of the CD8(+) T cell response to two immunodominant epitopes. The decreased response was due to type I IFN-dependent depletion of conventional dendritic cells and could be reproduced by specific depletion of dendritic cells from day 2 postinfection or by sterile induction of type I IFN. Increased virus replication and type I IFN specifically inhibited the response to two immunodominant epitopes that are known to be dependent on Ag cross-presented by DCs,but they did not inhibit the response to inflationary" epitopes whose responses can be sustained by infected nonhematopoietic cells. Our results show that type I IFN can suppress CD8(+) T cell responses to cross-presented Ag by depleting cross-presenting conventional dendritic cells." View Publication

In the presence of antigen and costimulation,T cells undergo a characteristic response of expansion,cessation and contraction. Previous studies have revealed that population-level reproducibility is a consequence of multiple clones exhibiting considerable disparity in burst size,highlighting the requirement for single-cell information in understanding T-cell fate regulation. Here we show that individual T-cell clones resulting from controlled stimulation in vitro are strongly lineage imprinted with highly correlated expansion fates. Progeny from clonal families cease dividing in the same or adjacent generations,with inter-clonal variation producing burst-size diversity. The effects of costimulatory signals on individual clones sum together with stochastic independence; therefore,the net effect across multiple clones produces consistent,but heterogeneous population responses. These data demonstrate that substantial clonal heterogeneity arises through differences in experience of clonal progenitors,either through stochastic antigen interaction or by differences in initial receptor sensitivities. View Publication

Autologous platelet rich plasma (PRP) is clinically used to induce repair of different tissues through the release of bioactive molecules. In some patients,the production of an efficient autologous PRP is unfeasible due to their compromised health. We developed an allogeneic PRP mismatched for AB0 and Rh antigens. To broadcast its clinical applications avoiding side effects the outcome of allogeneic PRP on immune response should be defined. Thus,we investigated whether PRP affected the differentiation of peripheral blood monocytes to dendritic cells upon stimulation with granulocyte monocyte colony stimulating factor and interleukin-4. Indeed,these cells are the main players of immune response and tissue repair. PRP inhibited the differentiation of monocytes to CD1a(+) dendritic cells and favored the expansion of phagocytic CD163(+) CD206(+) fibrocyte-like cells. These cells produced inteleukin-10 and prostaglandin-E2,but not interferon-γ,upon stimulation with lipopolysaccharides. Moreover,they promoted the expansion of regulatory CD4(+) CD25(+) FoxP3(+) T cells upon allostimulation or antigen specific priming. Finally,the conditioned medium harvested from monocytes differentiated with PRP triggered a strong chemotactic effect on mesenchymal cells in both scratch and transwell migration assays. These results strongly suggest that allogeneic PRP can foster the differentiation of monocytes to a regulatory anti-inflammatory population possibly favoring wound healing. View Publication

Treatment of HIV-infected patients with IFN-α results in significant,but clinically insufficient,reductions of viremia. IFN induces the expression of several antiviral proteins including BST-2,which inhibits HIV by multiple mechanisms. The viral protein Vpu counteracts different effects of BST-2. We thus asked if Vpu proteins from IFN-treated patients displayed improved anti-BST-2 activities as compared to Vpu from baseline. Deep-sequencing analyses revealed that in five of seven patients treated by IFN-α for a concomitant HCV infection in the absence of antiretroviral drugs,the dominant Vpu sequences differed before and during treatment. In three patients,vpu alleles that emerged during treatment improved virus replication in the presence of IFN-α,and two of them conferred improved virus budding from cells expressing BST-2. Differences were observed for the ability to down-regulate CD4,while all Vpu variants potently down-modulated BST-2 from the cell surface. This report discloses relevant consequences of IFN-treatment on HIV properties. View Publication

T lymphocytes require signals from self-peptides and cytokines,most notably interleukins 7 and 15 (IL-7,IL-15),for survival. While mouse T cells die rapidly if IL-7 or IL-15 is withdrawn,human T cells can survive prolonged withdrawal of IL-7 and IL-15. Here we show that IL-7 and IL-15 are required to maintain human T cell proliferative capacity through the STAT5 signaling pathway. T cells from humanized mice proliferate better if stimulated in the presence of human IL-7 or IL-15 or if T cells are exposed to human IL-7 or IL-15 in mice. Freshly isolated T cells from human peripheral blood lose proliferative capacity if cultured for 24 hours in the absence of IL-7 or IL-15. We further show that phosphorylation of STAT5 correlates with proliferation and inhibition of STAT5 reduces proliferation. These results reveal a novel role of IL-7 and IL-15 in maintaining human T cell function,provide an explanation for T cell dysfunction in humanized mice,and have significant implications for in vitro studies with human T cells. View Publication

Autologous chondrocyte implantation is the current gold standard cell therapy for cartilage lesions. However,in some instances,the heavily compromised health of the patient can either impair or limit the recovery of the autologous chondrocytes and a satisfactory outcome of the implant. Allogeneic human articular chondrocytes (hAC) could be a good alternative,but the possible immunological incompatibility between recipient and hAC donor should be considered. Herein,we report that allogeneic hAC inhibited T lymphocyte response to antigen-dependent and -independent proliferative stimuli. This effect was maximal when T cells and hAC were in contact and it was not relieved by the addition of exogenous lymphocyte growth factor interleukin (IL)-2. More important,hAC impaired the differentiation of peripheral blood monocytes induced with granulocyte monocyte colony-stimulating factor and IL-4 (Mo) to professional antigen-presenting cells,such as dendritic cells (DC). Indeed,a marked inhibition of the onset of the CD1a expression and an ineffective downregulation of CD14 antigens was observed in Mo-hAC co-cultures. Furthermore,compared to immature or mature DC,Mo from Mo-hAC co-cultures did not trigger an efficacious allo-response. The prostaglandin (PG) E2 present in the Mo-hAC co-culture conditioned media is a putative candidate of the hAC-mediated inhibition of Mo maturation. Altogether,these findings indicate that allogeneic hAC inhibit,rather than trigger,immune response and strongly suggest that an efficient chondrocyte implantation could be possible also in an allogeneic setting. View Publication

IL-25,a new member of the IL-17 cytokine family,is involved in type 2 immunity initiation and has been associated with the pathogenesis of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However,its exact role remains unclear. Here,we aimed to analyse IL-25 expression in the serum and synovial fluid of RA patients and evaluated the correlations between serum IL-25 levels,clinical and laboratory values and inflammation cytokines. Additionally,we investigated whether IL-25 can suppress Th1/Th17 responses involved in RA pathogenesis. We further determined whether IL-25 can alleviate collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) development in mice and the underlying mechanisms using in vitro and in vivo experiments. Our results showed that IL-25 was upregulated in the serum and synovial fluid of RA patients. Increased serum IL-25 levels were associated with disease severity and inflammatory response in RA patients. Furthermore,IL-25 inhibited CD4(+) T-cell activation and differentiation into Th17 cells,without affecting Th1 cells in human RA and CIA models. Administration of IL-25 could attenuate CIA development by Th17 suppression in an IL-13-dependent manner. Our findings indicate that IL-25 plays a potent immunosuppressive role in the pathogenesis of RA and CIA by downregulating Th17 cell response,and thus,may be a potential therapeutic agent for RA. View Publication

CD4(+) T cells develop distinct and often contrasting helper,regulatory,or cytotoxic activities. Typically a property of CD8(+) T cells,granzyme-mediated cytotoxic T cell (CTL) potential is also exerted by CD4(+) T cells. However,the conditions that induce CD4(+) CTLs are not entirely understood. Using single-cell transcriptional profiling,we uncover a unique signature of Granzyme B (GzmB)(+) CD4(+) CTLs,which distinguishes them from other CD4(+) T helper (Th) cells,including Th1 cells,and strongly contrasts with the follicular helper T (Tfh) cell signature. The balance between CD4(+) CTL and Tfh differentiation heavily depends on the class of infecting virus and is jointly regulated by the Tfh-related transcription factors Bcl6 and Tcf7 (encoding TCF-1) and by the expression of the inhibitory receptors PD-1 and LAG3. This unique profile of CD4(+) CTLs offers targets for their study,and its antagonism by the Tfh program separates CD4(+) T cells with either helper or killer functions. View Publication

During adaptive immune responses,CD8(+) T cells with low TCR affinities are released early into the circulation before high-affinity clones become dominant at later time points. How functional avidity maturation is orchestrated in lymphoid tissue and how low-affinity cells contribute to host protection remains unclear. In this study,we used intravital imaging of reactive lymph nodes (LNs) to show that T cells rapidly attached to dendritic cells irrespective of TCR affinity,whereas one day later,the duration of these stable interactions ceased progressively with lowering peptide major histocompatibility complex (pMHC) affinity. This correlated inversely BATF (basic leucine zipper transcription factor,ATF-like) and IRF4 (interferon-regulated factor 4) induction and timing of effector differentiation,as low affinity-primed T cells acquired cytotoxic activity earlier than high affinity-primed ones. After activation,low-affinity effector CD8(+) T cells accumulated at efferent lymphatic vessels for egress,whereas high affinity-stimulated CD8(+) T cells moved to interfollicular regions in a CXCR3-dependent manner for sustained pMHC stimulation and prolonged expansion. The early release of low-affinity effector T cells led to rapid target cell elimination outside reactive LNs. Our data provide a model for affinity-dependent spatiotemporal orchestration of CD8(+) T cell activation inside LNs leading to functional avidity maturation and uncover a role for low-affinity effector T cells during early microbial containment. View Publication