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BACKGROUND The conducting airway epithelium is repaired by tissue specific stem cells (TSC). In response to mild/moderate injury,each TSC repairs a discrete area of the epithelium. In contrast,severe epithelial injury stimulates TSC migration and expands the stem cell's reparative domain. Lung transplantation (LTx) can cause a moderate/severe airway injury and the remodeled airway contains a chimeric mixture of donor and recipient cells. These studies supported the hypothesis,LTx stimulates TSC migration resulting in epithelial chimerism. We tested this hypothesis in cystic fibrosis (CF) LTx patients. METHODS Airway mucosal injury was quantified using bronchoscopic imaging and a novel grading system. Bronchial brushing was used to recover TSC from 10 sites in the recipient and allograft airways. TSC chimerism was quantified by short tandem repeat analysis. TSC self-renewal and differentiation potential were assayed using the clone forming cell frequency and air-liquid-interface methods. Electrophysiology was used to determine if TSC chimerism altered epithelial ion channel activity. RESULTS LTx caused a mild to moderate airway mucosal injury. Donor and recipient TSC were identified in 91{\%} of anastomotic sites and 93{\%} of bronchial airways. TSC chimerism did not alter stem cell self-renewal or differentiation potential. The frequency of recipient TSC was proportional to CF Transmembrane Conductance Regulator (CFTR)-dependent ion channel activity and 33{\%} of allograft regions were at risk for abnormal CFTR activity. CONCLUSIONS LTx in CF patients stimulates bidirectional TSC migration across the anastomoses. TSC chimerism may alter ion homeostasis and compromise the host defense capability of the allograft airway epithelium. View Publication

The endoplasmic reticular Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor,thapsigargin,was used to study the role of an increase in cytosolic free calcium concentration ([Ca2+]i) as a signal for the activation of thymocyte apoptosis. Treatment of rat thymocytes with thapsigargin resulted in an early sustained increase in [Ca2+]i followed by extensive DNA fragmentation. Agarose gel electrophoresis revealed that the pattern of DNA fragments was typical of endonuclease-mediated internucleosomal cleavage. In addition,confocal microscopy studies showed the formation of apoptotic nuclei in thapsigargin-treated thymocytes. The concentrations of thapsigargin required to induce DNA fragmentation and [Ca2+]i increase in thymocytes were identical and so were the kinetics of thapsigargin-induced DNA fragmentation and formation of apoptotic nuclei. The lowest concentration of thapsigargin needed to activate apoptosis was 1 nM. Thapsigargin-induced [Ca2+]i increase and thymocyte apoptosis were inhibited in cells incubated in nominally Ca(2+)-free medium or pretreated with the intracellular Ca2+ chelator,bis-(o-aminophenoxy)ethane-N,N,N',N'-tetraacetic acid/acetoxymethyl ester. Removal of extracellular free Ca2+ with 5 mM EGTA at different time points after thapsigargin addition revealed a time dependency of about 2 h for the sustained increase in [Ca2+]i to trigger apoptosis in thymocytes. Thus,we conclude that the signal provided by the thapsigargin-induced [Ca2+]i increase is sufficient to activate thymocyte apoptosis. View Publication

Retinal pigment epithelium (RPE) performs numerous functions critical to retinal health and visual function. RPE senescence is a hallmark of aging and degenerative retinal disease development. Here,we evaluated the temporal expression of key nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)-biosynthetic genes and associated levels of NAD+,a principal regulator of energy metabolism and cellular fate,in mouse RPE. NAD+ levels declined with age and correlated directly with decreased nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAMPT) expression,increased expression of senescence markers (p16INK4a,p21Waf/Cip1,ApoJ,CTGF and $\beta$-galactosidase) and significant reductions in SIRT1 expression and activity. We simulated in vitro the age-dependent decline in NAD+ and the related increase in RPE senescence in human (ARPE-19) and mouse primary RPE using the NAMPT inhibitor FK866 and demonstrated the positive impact of NAD+-enhancing therapies on RPE cell viability. This,we confirmed in vivo in the RPE of mice injected sub-retinally with FK866 in the presence or absence of nicotinamide mononucleotide. Our data confirm the importance of NAD+ to RPE cell biology normally and in aging and demonstrate the potential utility of therapies targeting NAMPT and NAD+ biosynthesis to prevent or alleviate consequences of RPE senescence in aging and/or degenerative retinal diseases in which RPE dysfunction is a crucial element. View Publication

Accumulating evidence suggests important roles for the receptor tyrosine kinase Axl in cancer progression,invasion,metastasis,drug resistance,and patient mortality,highlighting Axl as an attractive target for therapeutic development. We have generated and characterized a potent and selective small-molecule inhibitor,R428,that blocks the catalytic and procancerous activities of Axl. R428 inhibits Axl with low nanomolar activity and blocked Axl-dependent events,including Akt phosphorylation,breast cancer cell invasion,and proinflammatory cytokine production. Pharmacologic investigations revealed favorable exposure after oral administration such that R428-treated tumors displayed a dose-dependent reduction in expression of the cytokine granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor and the epithelial-mesenchymal transition transcriptional regulator Snail. In support of an earlier study,R428 inhibited angiogenesis in corneal micropocket and tumor models. R428 administration reduced metastatic burden and extended survival in MDA-MB-231 intracardiac and 4T1 orthotopic (median survival,{\textgreater}80 days compared with 52 days; P {\textless} 0.05) mouse models of breast cancer metastasis. Additionally,R428 synergized with cisplatin to enhance suppression of liver micrometastasis. Our results show that Axl signaling regulates breast cancer metastasis at multiple levels in tumor cells and tumor stromal cells and that selective Axl blockade confers therapeutic value in prolonging survival of animals bearing metastatic tumors. View Publication

Gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase (gammaGCS),a rate-limiting enzyme in glutathione biosynthesis,plays a central role in glutathione homeostasis and is a target for development of potential therapeutic agents against parasites and cancer. We have determined the crystal structures of Escherichia coli gammaGCS unliganded and complexed with a sulfoximine-based transition-state analog inhibitor at resolutions of 2.5 and 2.1 A,respectively. In the crystal structure of the complex,the bound inhibitor is phosphorylated at the sulfoximido nitrogen and is coordinated to three Mg2+ ions. The cysteine-binding site was identified; it is formed inductively at the transition state. In the unliganded structure,an open space exists around the representative cysteine-binding site and is probably responsible for the competitive binding of glutathione. Upon inhibitor binding,the side chains of Tyr-241 and Tyr-300 turn,forming a hydrogen-bonding triad with the carboxyl group of the inhibitor's cysteine moiety,allowing this moiety to fit tightly into the cysteine-binding site with concomitant accommodation of its side chain into a shallow pocket. This movement is caused by a conformational change of a switch loop (residues 240-249). Based on this crystal structure,the cysteine-binding sites of mammalian and parasitic gammaGCSs were predicted by multiple sequence alignment,although no significant sequence identity exists between the E. coli gammaGCS and its eukaryotic homologues. The identification of this cysteine-binding site provides important information for the rational design of novel gammaGCS inhibitors. View Publication

Previous study demonstrated that the low survival of human embryonic stem cells (hESC) under conventional slow-cooling cryopreservation protocols is predominantly due to apoptosis rather than cellular necrosis. Hence,this study investigated whether a synthetic broad-spectrum irreversible inhibitor of caspase enzymes,Z-VAD-FMK can be used to enhance the post-thaw survival rate of hESC. About 100 mM Z-VAD-FMK was supplemented into either the freezing solution,the post-thaw culture media or both. Intact and adherent hESC colonies were cryopreserved so as to enable subsequent quantitation of the post-thaw cell survival rate through the MTT assay,which can only be performed with adherent cells. Exposure to 100 mM Z-VAD-FMK in the freezing solution alone did not significantly enhance the post-thaw survival rate (10.2{\%} vs. 9.9{\%},p {\textgreater} 0.05). However,when 100 mM Z-VAD-FMK was added to the post-thaw culture media,there was a significant enhancement in the survival rate from 9.9{\%} to 14.4{\%} (p {\textless} 0.05),which was further increased to 18.7{\%} when Z-VAD-FMK was also added to the freezing solution as well (p {\textless} 0.01). Spontaneous differentiation of hESC after cryopreservation was assessed by morphological observations under bright-field microscopy,and by immunocytochemical staining for the pluripotency markers SSEA-3 and TRA-1-81. The results demonstrated that exposure to Z-VAD-FMK did not significantly enhance the spontaneous differentiation of hESC within post-thaw culture. View Publication

The bleomycin group antitumor antibiotics have long been of interest as a consequence of their efficacy in the treatment of certain tumors,not to mention their unique structures and properties in mediating dioxygen activation and sequence selective degradation of DNA. At a chemical level,the structure originally assigned to bleomycin was subsequently reassigned and the new structure has been confirmed by total synthesis. Through the elaboration of structurally modified bleomycin congeners and fragments,synthetic efforts have also facilitated an understanding of the contribution of individual structural domains in bleomycin to sequence selective DNA binding and cleavage,and have also provided insights into the nature of the chemical processes by which DNA degradation takes place. Within the last several years,it has also become apparent that bleomycin can mediate the oxidative degradation of all major classes of cellular RNAs; it seems entirely plausible that RNA may also represent an important locus of action for this class of antitumor agent. In parallel with ongoing synthetic and mechanistic efforts using classical methods,the study of bleomycins attached to solid supports has been shown to provide important mechanistic insights,and the actual elaboration of modified bleomycins by solid phase synthesis constitutes a logical extension of such efforts. View Publication

Metastases kill 90{\%} of cancer patients. It is thus a major challenge in cancer therapy to inhibit the spreading of tumor cells from primary tumor sites to those particular organs where metastases are likely to occur. Whereas the actin cytoskeleton is a key component involved in cell migration,agents targeting actin dynamics have been relatively poorly investigated. Consequently,valuable in vitro pharmacological tools are needed to selectively identify this type of agent. In response to the absence of any standardized process,the present work aims to develop a multi-assay strategy for screening actin-affecting drugs with anti-migratory potentials. To validate our approach,we used two cancer cell lines (MCF7 and A549) and three actin-affecting drugs (cytochalasin D,latrunculin A,and jasplakinolide). We quantified the effects of these drugs on the kinetics of actin polymerization in tubes (by means of spectrofluorimetry) and on the dynamics of actin cytoskeletons within whole cells (by means of fluorescence microscopy). Using quantitative videomicroscopy,we investigated the actual effects of the drugs on cell motility. Finally,the combined drug effects on cell motility and cell growth were evaluated by means of a scratch-wound assay. While our results showed concordant drug-induced effects on actin polymerization occurring in vitro in test tubes and within whole cells,the whole cell assay appeared more sensitive than the tube assay. The inhibition of actin polymerization induced by cytochalasin D was paralleled by a decrease in cell motility for both cell types. In the case of jasplakinolide,which induces actin polymerization,while it significantly enhanced the locomotion of the A549 cells,it significantly inhibited that of the MCF-7 ones. All these effects were confirmed by means of the scratch-wound assay except of the jasplakinolide-induced effects on MCF-7 cell motility. These later seemed compensated by an additional effect occurring during wound recolonization (possibly acting on the cell growth features). In conclusion,the use of multi-assays with different levels of sophistication and biological relevance is recommended in the screening of new actin-affecting drugs with potentially anti-migratory effects. View Publication

Deregulation of apoptosis,the physiological form of cell death,is closely associated with immunological diseases and cancer. Apoptosis is activated either by death receptor-driven or mitochondrial pathways,both of which may provide potential targets for novel anticancer drugs. Although several ligands stimulating death receptors have been described,the actual molecular events triggering the mitochondrial pathway are largely unknown. Here,we show initiation of apoptosis by gradual depletion of the intracellular coenzyme NAD+. We identified the first low molecular weight compound,designated FK866,which induces apoptosis by highly specific,noncompetitive inhibition of nicotinamide phosphoribosyltransferase (NAPRT),a key enzyme in the regulation of NAD+ biosynthesis from the natural precursor nicotinamide. Interference with this enzyme does not primarily intoxicate cells because the mitochondrial respiratory activity and the NAD+ -dependent redox reactions involved remain unaffected as long as NAD+ is not effectively depleted by catabolic reactions. Certain tissues,however,have a high turnover of NAD+ through its cleavage by enzymes like poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase. Such cells often rely on the more readily available nicotinamide pathway for NAD+ synthesis and undergo apoptosis after inhibition of NAPRT,whereas cells effectively using the nicotinic acid pathway for NAD+ synthesis remain unaffected. In support of this concept,FK866 effectively induced delayed cell death by apoptosis in HepG2 human liver carcinoma cells with an IC(50) of approximately 1 nM,did not directly inhibit mitochondrial respiratory activity,but caused gradual NAD+ depletion through specific inhibition of NAPRT. This enzyme,when partially purified from K562 human leukemia cells,was noncompetitively inhibited by FK866,and the inhibitor constants were calculated to be 0.4 nM for the enzyme/substrate complex (K(i)) and 0.3 nM for the free enzyme (K(i)'),respectively. Nicotinic acid and nicotinamide were both found to have antidote potential for the cellular effects of FK866. FK866 may be used for treatment of diseases implicating deregulated apoptosis such as cancer for immunosuppression or as a sensitizer for genotoxic agents. Furthermore,it may provide an important tool for investigation of the molecular triggers of the mitochondrial pathway leading to apoptosis through enabling temporal separation of NAD+ decrease from ATP breakdown and apoptosis by several days. View Publication

Collective invasion can be led by breast cancer cells expressing basal epithelial markers,typified by keratin-14 (KRT14). We analyzed gene expression data from The Cancer Genome Atlas and demonstrated a significant correlation between a KRT14+ invasion signature and a stromal-mediated extracellular matrix (ECM) organization module. We then developed a novel coculture model of tumor organoids with autologous stromal cells. Coculture significantly increased KRT14 expression and invasion of organoids from both luminal and basal murine breast cancer models. However,stromal cell conditioned medium induced invasion but not KRT14 expression. Cancer cells released TGF$\beta$ and that signaling pathway was required for stromal cell-induced invasion and KRT14 expression. Mechanistically,TGF$\beta$ induced NOX4 expression in stromal cells and NOX4 inhibition reduced invasion and KRT14 expression. In summary,we developed a novel coculture model and revealed dynamic molecular interactions between stromal cells and cancer cells that regulate both basal gene expression and invasive behavior. IMPLICATIONS: Fibroblasts within mammary tumors can regulate the molecular phenotype and invasive behavior of breast cancer cells. VISUAL OVERVIEW: http://mcr.aacrjournals.org/content/molcanres/18/11/1615/F1.large.jpg. View Publication