Scientific Resources

The discovery of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) and their application to patient-specific disease models offers new opportunities for studying the pathophysiology of neurological disorders. However,current methods for culturing iPSC-derived neuronal cells result in clustering of neurons,which precludes the analysis of individual neurons and defined neuronal networks. To address this challenge,cultures of human neurons on micropatterned surfaces are developed that promote neuronal survival over extended periods of time. This approach facilitates studies of neuronal development,cellular trafficking,and related mechanisms that require assessment of individual neurons and specific network connections. Importantly,micropatterns support the long-term stability of cultured neurons,which enables time-dependent analysis of cellular processes in living neurons. The approach described in this paper allows mechanistic studies of human neurons,both in terms of normal neuronal development and function,as well as time-dependent pathological processes,and provides a platform for testing of new therapeutics in neuropsychiatric disorders. View Publication

The myelination of axons is a crucial step during vertebrate central nervous system (CNS) development,allowing for rapid and energy efficient saltatory conduction of nerve impulses. Accordingly,the differentiation of oligodendrocytes,the myelinating cells of the CNS,and their expression of myelin genes are under tight transcriptional control. We previously identified a putative transcription factor,Myelin Regulatory Factor (Myrf),as being vital for CNS myelination. Myrf is required for the generation of CNS myelination during development and also for its maintenance in the adult. It has been controversial,however,whether Myrf directly regulates transcription,with reports of a transmembrane domain and lack of nuclear localization. Here we show that Myrf is a membrane-associated transcription factor that undergoes an activating proteolytic cleavage to separate its transmembrane domain-containing C-terminal region from a nuclear-targeted N-terminal region. Unexpectedly,this cleavage event occurs via a protein domain related to the autoproteolytic intramolecular chaperone domain of the bacteriophage tail spike proteins,the first time this domain has been found to play a role in eukaryotic proteins. Using ChIP-Seq we show that the N-terminal cleavage product directly binds the enhancer regions of oligodendrocyte-specific and myelin genes. This binding occurs via a defined DNA-binding consensus sequence and strongly promotes the expression of target genes. These findings identify Myrf as a novel example of a membrane-associated transcription factor and provide a direct molecular mechanism for its regulation of oligodendrocyte differentiation and CNS myelination. View Publication

Tissue-resident macrophages,such as microglia,Kupffer cells,and Langerhans cells,derive from Myb-independent yolk sac (YS) progenitors generated before the emergence of hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). Myb-independent YS-derived resident macrophages self-renew locally,independently of circulating monocytes and HSCs. In contrast,adult blood monocytes,as well as infiltrating,gut,and dermal macrophages,derive from Myb-dependent HSCs. These findings are derived from the mouse,using gene knockouts and lineage tracing,but their applicability to human development has not been formally demonstrated. Here,we use human induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) as a tool to model human hematopoietic development. By using a CRISPR-Cas9 knockout strategy,we show that human iPSC-derived monocytes/macrophages develop in an MYB-independent,RUNX1-,and SPI1 (PU.1)-dependent fashion. This result makes human iPSC-derived macrophages developmentally related to and a good model for MYB-independent tissue-resident macrophages,such as alveolar and kidney macrophages,microglia,Kupffer cells,and Langerhans cells. View Publication

Smoking is an important risk factor for the development of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and viral infections are believed to be major triggers of exacerbations,which periodically lead to a worsening of symptoms. The pro-inflammatory IL-1 family members IL-1α and IL-1β are increased in COPD patients and might contribute to disease pathology. We investigated whether individual or combined inhibition of these cytokines reduced lung inflammation in cigarette smoke (CS)-exposed and H1N1-infected BALB/c mice. Animals were treated with individual or combined antibodies (Abs) directed against IL-1α,IL-1β or IL-1R1. Cells in BAL fluid and cytokines/chemokines in lung homogenate were determined. The viral load was investigated. Blocking IL-1α had significant suppressive effects on total cells,neutrophils,and macrophages. Furthermore,it reduced KC levels significantly. Blocking of IL-1β did not provide significant activity. In primary human bronchial epithelial air-liquid-interface cell cultures infected with H1N1,IL-1α Abs but not IL-1β Abs reduced levels of TNF-α and IL-6. Concomitant usage of Abs against IL-1α/IL-1β revealed strong effects in vivo and reduced total cells,neutrophils and macrophages. Additionally,levels of KC,IL-6,TNF-α,MCP-1,MIP-1α and MIP-1β were significantly reduced and ICAM-1 and MUC5 A/C mRNA expression was attenuated. The viral load decreased significantly upon combined IL-1α/IL-1β Ab treatment. Blocking the IL-1R1 provided significant effects on total cells,neutrophils and macrophages but was inferior compared to inhibiting both its soluble ligands IL-1α/IL-1β. Our results suggest that combined inhibition of IL-1α/IL-1β might be beneficial to reduce CS/H1N1-induced airway inflammation. Moreover,combined targeting of both IL-1α/IL-1β might be more efficient compared to individual neutralization IL-1α or IL-1β or inhibition of the IL-1R1. View Publication

Synaptic cadherin adhesion complexes are known to be key regulators of synapse plasticity. However,the molecular mechanisms that coordinate activity-induced modifications in cadherin localization and adhesion and the subsequent changes in synapse morphology and efficacy remain unknown. We demonstrate that the intracellular cadherin binding protein δ-catenin is transiently palmitoylated by DHHC5 after enhanced synaptic activity and that palmitoylation increases δ-catenin-cadherin interactions at synapses. Both the palmitoylation of δ-catenin and its binding to cadherin are required for activity-induced stabilization of N-cadherin at synapses and the enlargement of postsynaptic spines,as well as the insertion of GluA1 and GluA2 subunits into the synaptic membrane and the concomitant increase in miniature excitatory postsynaptic current amplitude. Notably,context-dependent fear conditioning in mice resulted in increased δ-catenin palmitoylation,as well as increased δ-catenin-cadherin associations at hippocampal synapses. Together these findings suggest a role for palmitoylated δ-catenin in coordinating activity-dependent changes in synaptic adhesion molecules,synapse structure and receptor localization that are involved in memory formation. View Publication

The prion protein (PrP) is highly conserved and ubiquitously expressed,suggesting that it plays an important physiological function. However,despite decades of investigation,this role remains elusive. Here,by using animal and cellular models,we unveil a key role of PrP in the DNA damage response. Exposure of neurons to a genotoxic stress activates PRNP transcription leading to an increased amount of PrP in the nucleus where it interacts with APE1,the major mammalian endonuclease essential for base excision repair,and stimulates its activity. Preventing the induction of PRNP results in accumulation of abasic sites in DNA and impairs cell survival after genotoxic treatment. Brains from Prnp(-/-) mice display a reduced APE1 activity and a defect in the repair of induced DNA damage in vivo. Thus,PrP is required to maintain genomic stability in response to genotoxic stresses. View Publication

The mechanisms by which sex differences in the mammalian brain arise are poorly understood,but are influenced by a combination of underlying genetic differences and gonadal hormone exposure. Using a mouse embryonic neural stem cell (eNSC) model to understand early events contributing to sexually dimorphic brain development,we identified novel interactions between chromosomal sex and hormonal exposure that are instrumental to early brain sex differences. RNA-sequencing identified 103 transcripts that were differentially expressed between XX and XY eNSCs at baseline (FDR%=%0.10). Treatment with testosterone-propionate (TP) reveals sex-specific gene expression changes,causing 2854 and 792 transcripts to become differentially expressed on XX and XY genetic backgrounds respectively. Within the TP responsive transcripts,there was enrichment for genes which function as epigenetic regulators that affect both histone modifications and DNA methylation patterning. We observed that TP caused a global decrease in 5-methylcytosine abundance in both sexes,a transmissible effect that was maintained in cellular progeny. Additionally,we determined that TP was associated with residue-specific alterations in acetylation of histone tails. These findings highlight an unknown component of androgen action on cells within the developmental CNS,and contribute to a novel mechanism of action by which early hormonal organization is initiated and maintained. View Publication

We examined the interaction between OSU-03012 (also called AR-12) with phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors to determine the role of the chaperone glucose-regulated protein (GRP78)/BiP/HSPA5 in the cellular response. Sildenafil (Viagra) interacted in a greater than additive fashion with OSU-03012 to kill stem-like GBM cells. Treatment of cells with OSU-03012/sildenafil: abolished the expression of multiple oncogenic growth factor receptors and plasma membrane drug efflux pumps and caused a rapid degradation of GRP78 and other HSP70 and HSP90 family chaperone proteins. Decreased expression of plasma membrane receptors and drug efflux pumps was dependent upon enhanced PERK-eIF2α-ATF4-CHOP signaling and was blocked by GRP78 over-expression. In vivo OSU-03012/sildenafil was more efficacious than treatment with celecoxib and sildenafil at killing tumor cells without damaging normal tissues and in parallel reduced expression of ABCB1 and ABCG2 in the normal brain. The combination of OSU-03012/sildenafil synergized with low concentrations of sorafenib to kill tumor cells,and with lapatinib to kill ERBB1 over-expressing tumor cells. In multiplex assays on plasma and human tumor tissue from an OSU-03012/sildenafil treated mouse,we noted a profound reduction in uPA signaling and identified FGF and JAK1/2 as response biomarkers for potentially suppressing the killing response. Inhibition of FGFR signaling and to a lesser extent JAK1/2 signaling profoundly enhanced OSU-03012/sildenafil lethality. View Publication

The present studies determined whether clinically relevant phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors interacted with a clinically relevant NSAID,celecoxib,to kill tumor cells. Celecoxib and PDE5 inhibitors interacted in a greater than additive fashion to kill multiple tumor cell types. Celecoxib and sildenafil killed ex vivo primary human glioma cells as well as their associated activated microglia. Knock down of PDE5 recapitulated the effects of PDE5 inhibitor treatment; the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME suppressed drug combination toxicity. The effects of celecoxib were COX2 independent. Over-expression of c-FLIP-s or knock down of CD95/FADD significantly reduced killing by the drug combination. CD95 activation was dependent on nitric oxide and ceramide signaling. CD95 signaling activated the JNK pathway and inhibition of JNK suppressed cell killing. The drug combination inactivated mTOR and increased the levels of autophagy and knock down of Beclin1 or ATG5 strongly suppressed killing by the drug combination. The drug combination caused an ER stress response; knock down of IRE1α/XBP1 enhanced killing whereas knock down of eIF2α/ATF4/CHOP suppressed killing. Sildenafil and celecoxib treatment suppressed the growth of mammary tumors in vivo. Collectively our data demonstrate that clinically achievable concentrations of celecoxib and sildenafil have the potential to be a new therapeutic approach for cancer. View Publication

The present studies examined the toxic interaction between the non-coxib celecoxib derivative OSU-03012 and phosphodiesterase 5 (PDE5) inhibitors,and also determined the roles of endoplasmic reticulum stress response regulators in cell survival. PDE5 inhibitors interacted in a greater than additive fashion with OSU-03012 to kill parental glioma and stem-like glioma cells. Knockdown of the endoplasmic reticulum stress response proteins IRE1 or XBP1 enhanced the lethality of OSU-03012,and of [OSU-03012 + PDE5 inhibitor] treatment. Pan-caspase and caspase-9 inhibition did not alter OSU-03012 lethality but did abolish enhanced killing in the absence of IRE1 or XBP1. Expression of the mitochondrial protective protein BCL-XL or the caspase-8 inhibitor c-FLIP-s,or knockdown of death receptor CD95 or the death receptor caspase-8 linker protein FADD,suppressed killing by [OSU-03012 + PDE5 inhibitor] treatment. CD95 activation was blocked by the nitric oxide synthase inhibitor L-NAME. Knockdown of the autophagy regulatory proteins Beclin1 or ATG5 protected the cells from OSU-03012 and from [OSU-03012 + PDE5 inhibitor] toxicity. Knockdown of IRE1 enhanced OSU-03012/[OSU-03012 + PDE5 inhibitor]-induced JNK activation,and inhibition of JNK suppressed the elevated killing caused by IRE1 knockdown. Knockdown of CD95 blunted JNK activation. Collectively,our data demonstrate that PDE5 inhibitors recruit death receptor signaling to enhance OSU-03012 toxicity in glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) cells. View Publication

The chaperone GRP78/Dna K is conserved throughout evolution down to prokaryotes. The GRP78 inhibitor OSU-03012 (AR-12) interacted with sildenafil (Viagra) or tadalafil (Cialis) to rapidly reduce GRP78 levels in eukaryotes and as a single agent reduce Dna K levels in prokaryotes. Similar data with the drug combination were obtained for: HSP70,HSP90,GRP94,GRP58,HSP27,HSP40 and HSP60. OSU-03012/sildenafil treatment killed brain cancer stem cells and decreased the expression of: NPC1 and TIM1; LAMP1; and NTCP1,receptors for Ebola/Marburg/Hepatitis A,Lassa fever,and Hepatitis B viruses,respectively. Pre-treatment with OSU-03012/sildenafil reduced expression of the coxsakie and adenovirus receptor in parallel with it also reducing the ability of a serotype 5 adenovirus or coxsakie virus B4 to infect and to reproduce. Similar data were obtained using Chikungunya,Mumps,Measles,Rubella,RSV,CMV,and Influenza viruses. OSU-03012 as a single agent at clinically relevant concentrations killed laboratory generated antibiotic resistant E. coli and clinical isolate multi-drug resistant N. gonorrhoeae and MRSE which was in bacteria associated with reduced Dna K and Rec A expression. The PDE5 inhibitors sildenafil or tadalafil enhanced OSU-03012 killing in N. gonorrhoeae and MRSE and low marginally toxic doses of OSU-03012 could restore bacterial sensitivity in N. gonorrhoeae to multiple antibiotics. Thus,Dna K and bacterial phosphodiesterases are novel antibiotic targets,and inhibition of GRP78 is of therapeutic utility for cancer and also for bacterial and viral infections. View Publication

The respiratory tract with its ease of access,vast surface area and dense network of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) represents an ideal target for immune-modulation. Bio-mimetic nanocarriers such as virosomes may provide immunomodulatory properties to treat diseases such as allergic asthma. In our study we employed a triple co-culture model of epithelial cells,macrophages and dendritic cells to simulate the human airway barrier. The epithelial cell line 16HBE was grown on inserts and supplemented with human blood monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs) and dendritic cells (MDDCs) for exposure to influenza virosomes and liposomes. Additionally,primary human nasal epithelial cells (PHNEC) and EpCAM+ epithelial progenitor cell mono-cultures were utilized to simulate epithelium from large and smaller airways,respectively. To assess particle uptake and phenotype change,cell cultures were analyzed by flow cytometry and pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations were measured by ELISA. All cell types internalized virosomes more efficiently than liposomes in both mono- and co-cultures. APCs like MDMs and MDDCs showed the highest uptake capacity. Virosome and liposome treatment caused a moderate degree of activation in MDDCs from mono-cultures and induced an increased cytokine production in co-cultures. In epithelial cells,virosome uptake was increased compared to liposomes in both mono- and co-cultures with EpCAM+ epithelial progenitor cells showing highest uptake capacity. In conclusion,all cell types successfully internalized both nanocarriers with virosomes being taken up by a higher proportion of cells and at a higher rate inducing limited activation of MDDCs. Thus virosomes may represent ideal carrier antigen systems to modulate mucosal immune responses in the respiratory tract without causing excessive inflammatory changes. View Publication