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Interleukin-6 (IL-6) is a multifunctional cytokine that plays important roles in inflammation. Several studies have shown that IL-6 regulates various aspects of T cell function,including the differentiation of CD4+ T cells into the pro-inflammatory Th17 subset. Given the tight link between T cell metabolism and function,and the role of IL-6 in regulating cellular metabolism across tissues,we investigated the role of IL-6 signaling in Th17 cell metabolism. Using T cell specific IL-6 receptor (IL-6R) conditional knockout mice and littermate controls,we found that IL-6R signaling regulates the proportions of CD4+ and CD8+ T cells and drives CD4+ T cell differentiation into Th17 cells. We also found that IL-6R signaling is required for Th17 cell glycolytic metabolism. In T cell-specific IL-6R knockout mice,Th17 cells had reduced glucose uptake and glycolysis,as well as decreased expression of key glycolytic enzymes,while showing increased basal oxygen consumption. However,we also found that IL-6R signaling enhanced oxidative capacity and mitochondrial coupling efficiency in Th17 T cells. Importantly,inhibition of lactate dehydrogenase using FX11 selectively impaired Th17 cell differentiation with minimal effects on Treg cells. These findings suggest that targeting metabolic pathways regulated by IL-6R signaling can selectively inhibit inflammatory Th17 responses,offering a potential strategy for controlling IL-6 mediated inflammation. View Publication

Natural killer (NK) cells,which are key components of the innate immune response,are crucial for ensuring the efficacy of vaccines as they rapidly eliminate infected cells and enhance the adaptive immune response,ensuring robust and lasting protection. In this report,we investigated the effect of Cladophora wrightiana var. minor (CW) extract,a marine alga,in activating NK cells,as an adjuvant to inactivated A/Puerto Rico/8/34 H1N1 influenza vaccine (iPR8). In vitro,CW extract significantly enhanced the level of activation markers CD69 and CD107a on NK cells and triggered intracellular secretion of interferon gamma (IFN‐γ) and granzyme B (GrB),indicating effective NK cell stimulation and cytotoxic function. In vivo,CW extract promoted substantial NK cell recruitment and activation,resulting in higher NK cell populations and elevated post‐immunization levels of activation markers. Additionally,CW extract increased IFN‐γ and GrB production in CD8+ T cells,highlighting its broader impact on the immune response. We also found direct evidence that CW‐activated NK cells and dendritic cells (DCs) interacted with and induced the activation of immature DCs and resting NK cells,respectively. These findings suggest that CW extract is a promising adjuvant for nasal vaccines,enhancing cellular immunity by activating NK cells and supporting interactions with DCs and CD8+ T cells. Cladophora wrightiana var. minor (CW) extract,administered as an adjuvant with inactivated influenza virus (iPR8),stimulates both innate and adaptive immune responses. CW enhances NK cell activation,cytotoxic function,and reciprocal crosstalk with dendritic cells,while also promoting CD8+ T cell responses and antigen‐specific IgG production. These findings support CW as a potent nasal vaccine adjuvant capable of boosting protective immunity. https://app.biorender.com/illustrations/6893f7d09e3fc89e9d953f76?slideId=2a6a42b6‐a3d9‐400a‐b839‐fa297b3108c5. View Publication

Human induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) derived neurons are powerful tools to model disease biology in the drug development space. Here we leveraged a spectrum of neurophysiological tools to characterize iPSC-derived NGN2 neurons. Specifically,we applied these technologies to detect phenotypes associated with presynaptic dysfunction and rescue in NGN2 neurons lacking a synaptic vesicle associated protein MUNC18-1,encoded by syntaxin binding protein 1 gene (STXBP1). STXBP1 homozygous knock out NGN2 neurons lacked miniature post synaptic currents and demonstrated disrupted network bursting as assayed with multielectrode array and calcium imaging. Furthermore,knock out neurons released less glutamate into culture media,consistent with a presynaptic deficit. These synaptic phenotypes were rescued by reconstitution of STXBP1 protein by AAV transduction in a dose-dependent manner. Our results identify a complementary suite of physiological methods suitable to examine the modulation of synaptic transmission in human neurons. View Publication

Brain Microphysiological Systems,including neural organoids derived from human induced pluripotent stem cells,offer a unique lens to study the intricate workings of the human brain. This paper investigates the foundational elements of learning and memory in neural organoids by quantifying immediate early gene expression in response to chemical modulation,input-specific short- and long-term synaptic plasticity,neuronal network dynamics,connectivity,and criticality to demonstrate the utility of these organoids in basic science research. Neural organoids showed synapse formation,glutamatergic and GABAergic receptor expression,immediate early gene expression basally and evoked,functional connectivity,criticality,and synaptic plasticity in response to theta-burst stimulation. In addition,pharmacological interventions on GABAergic and glutamatergic receptors and input-specific theta-burst stimulation further shed light on the capacity of neural organoids to mirror synaptic modulation,specifically short- and long-term potentiation and depression,demonstrating their potential as tools for studying neurophysiological and neurological processes and informing therapeutic strategies for diseases. Neural organoids exhibit key aspects of learning and memory,including input-specific synaptic plasticity,basal and evoked immediate early gene expression,and critical network dynamics,highlighting their value in modeling human neurophysiology. View Publication

Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) compose a highly migratory,multipotent,stem cell population arising from the neural plate border of the embryonic ectoderm. Investigating the development of NCSCs is critical in understanding both embryonic development and abnormal events that underlie neurocristopathies. Suggested seeding densities in in vitro human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) differentiation protocols,varying between 10,000 cells/cm 2 and 200,000 cells/cm 2,demonstrate a lack of consensus on the optimal conditions to obtain NCSCs. Aiming to maximize the differentiation efficiency of hiPSCs towards the NCSCs lineage,we investigated the effect of the initial seeding density on NCSCs lineage commitment,both in fibroblast- and human peripheral blood mononuclear cell (PBMC)-derived hiPSCs. Cultures were characterized with gene and protein expression analysis assessing stemness ( OCT3/4 and NANOG ),neural crest identity ( SNAI2 and SOX10 ) and neuroectoderm identity ( PAX6 and SOX1 ). We demonstrate that reaching a confluent monolayer of cells by the end of the differentiating protocol is crucial to obtaining NCSCs from hiPSCs. To achieve this,our results indicated 17,000 cells/cm 2 is the optimal initial seeding density. Under this protocol,a confluent monolayer was reached after 8 days of differentiation and an average of 89% SOX10 positive cells were obtained. The fold change of SNAI2 and SOX10 expression was 11-fold and 17-fold higher,respectively,in cultures seeded with 17,000 cells/cm 2,compared to the highest tested density of 200,000 cells/cm 2 . In contrast,seeding 200,000 cells/cm 2 induced neuroectoderm-like cells,confirmed by an average of 45% of cells marking positive for PAX6. With this work,we demonstrate the importance of achieving cellular confluency during NCSCs differentiation. View Publication

Sac1 is a conserved phosphoinositide phosphatase,whose loss-of-function compromises cell and organism viability. Here,we employ acute auxin-inducible Sac1 degradation to identify its immediate downstream effectors in human cells. Most of Sac1 is degraded in ~1 h,paralleled by increased PI(4)P and decreased cholesterol in the trans-Golgi network (TGN) during the following hour,and superseded by Golgi fragmentation,impaired glycosylation,and selective degradation of TGN proteins by ~4 h. The TGN disintegration results from its acute deacidification caused by disassembly of the Golgi V-ATPase. Mechanistically,Sac1 mediated TGN membrane composition maintains an assembly-promoting conformation of the V0a2 subunit. Key phenotypes of acute Sac1 degradation are recapitulated in human differentiated trophoblasts,causing processing defects of chorionic gonadotropin,in line with loss-of-function intolerance of the human SACM1L gene. Collectively,our findings reveal that the assembly of the Golgi V-ATPase is controlled by the TGN membrane via Sac1 fuelled lipid exchange. This study employs auxin-inducible degradation of Sac1. The authors reveal that acute Sac1 depletion changes the Golgi membrane lipid composition,causing disassembly of the Golgi V-ATPase and eventually resulting in cargo processing defects. View Publication

Type 1 interferons (IFN-Is) exhibit significant antiviral,antitumor,and immunoregulatory properties,demonstrating substantial therapeutic potential. However,IFN-Is are pleiotropic cytokines,and the available data on their effect under specific pathological conditions are inconclusive. Furthermore,the systemic administration of IFN-Is can result in side effects. Generating cells that can migrate to the pathological focus and provide regulated local production of IFN-Is could overcome this limitation and provide a model for an in-depth analysis of the biological and therapeutic effects of IFN-Is. Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) are a valuable source of various differentiated cell types,including human immune cells. In this study,we describe the generation of genetically modified human iPSCs with doxycycline-controlled overexpression of interferon β (IFNB1). Three IFNB1-overexpressing iPSC lines (IFNB-iPSCs) and one control line expressing the transactivator M2rtTA (TA-iPSCs) were generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 technology. The pluripotency of the generated cell lines has been confirmed by the following: (i) cell morphology; (ii) the expression of the pluripotency markers OCT4,SOX2,TRA 1-60,and NANOG; and (iii) the ability to spontaneously differentiate into the derivatives of the three germ layers. Upon the addition of doxycycline,all IFNB-iPSCs upregulated IFNB1 expression at RNA (depending on the iPSC line,126-816-fold) and protein levels. The IFNB-iPSCs and TA-iPSCs generated here represent a valuable cellular model for studying the effects of IFN-β on the activity and differentiation trajectories of different cell types,as well as for generating different types of cells with controllable IFN-β expression. View Publication

Seven female individuals with multiple congenital anomalies,developmental delay and/or intellectual disability have been found to have a genetic variant of uncertain significance in the mediator complex subunit 12 gene ( MED12 c.3412C>T,p.Arg1138Trp). The functional consequence of this genetic variant in disease is undetermined,and insight into disease mechanism is required. We identified a de novo MED12 p.Arg1138Trp variant in a female patient and compared disease phenotypes with six female individuals identified in the literature. To investigate affected biological pathways,we derived two induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from the patient: one expressing wildtype MED12 and the other expressing the MED12 p.Arg1138Trp variant. We performed neural disease modelling,transcriptomics and protein analysis,comparing healthy and variant cells. When comparing the two cell lines,we identified altered gene expression in neural cells expressing the variant,including genes regulating RNA polymerase II activity,transcription,pre-mRNA processing,and neural development. We also noted a decrease in MED12L expression. Pathway analysis indicated temporal delays in axon development,forebrain differentiation,and neural cell specification with significant upregulation of pre-ribosome complex gene pathways. In a human neural model,expression of MED12 p.Arg1138Trp altered neural cell development and dysregulated the pre-ribosome complex providing functional evidence of disease aetiology and mechanism in MED12-related disorders. The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s10020-025-01365-5. View Publication

IntroductionExposure to teratogenic compounds during pregnancy can lead to significant birth defects. Given the considerable variation in drug responses across species,along with the financial and ethical challenges associated with animal testing,the development of advanced human-based in vitro assays is imperative for effectively identifying potential human teratogens. Previously,we developed a human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs)-based biomarker assay,ReproTracker,that follows the differentiation of hiPSCs into hepatocytes and cardiomyocytes. The assay combines morphological profiling with the assessment of time-dependent expression patterns of cell-specific biomarkers to detect developmental toxicity responses.MethodsTo further increase the predictability of the assay in identifying potential teratogens,we added differentiation of hiPSCs towards neural rosette-like cells. We evaluated the performance of the extended assay with a set of 51 well-known in vivo teratogens and non-teratogens,including the compounds listed in the ICH S5 reference list.ResultsThe optimized assay correctly identified (neuro)developmental toxicants that were not detected in the hepatocyte and cardiomyocyte differentiation assays. These compounds selectively downregulated gene and protein expression of the neuroectodermal marker PAX6 and/or neural rosette marker NESTIN in a concentration-dependent manner and disrupted the differentiation of hiPSCs towards neural rosette-like cells. Overall,based on the current dataset,the addition of neural commitment improved the assay accuracy (from 72.55% to 86.27%) and sensitivity (from 67.50% to 87.50%),when compared to the previously described assay.DiscussionIn summary,trilineage differentiation expanded the spectrum of teratogenic agents detectable by ReproTracker,making the assay an invaluable tool for early in vitro teratogenicity screening. View Publication

Prion diseases,such as sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob Disease (sCJD),are neurodegenerative disorders caused by misfolding of the prion protein (PrP). The D178N mutation in the PrP gene causes Fatal Familial Insomnia (FFI). Here we show that both sCJD and FFI prions can infect human cerebral organoids with or without the D178N mutation,and that the resulting infection is dictated by the inoculating prion and not the host organoid genotype. View Publication

IntroductionAngelman Syndrome (AS) is characterized in large part by the loss of functional UBE3A protein in mature neurons. A majority of AS etiologies is linked to deletion of the maternal copy of the UBE3A gene and epigenetic silencing of the paternal copy. A common therapeutic strategy is to unsilence the intact paternal copy thereby restoring UBE3A levels. Identifying novel therapies has been aided by a UBE3A-YFP reporter mouse model. This study presents an analogous fluorescent UBE3A reporter system in human cells.MethodsPreviously derived induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs) with a Class II large deletion at the UBE3A locus are used in this study. mGL and eGFP are integrated downstream of the endogenous UBE3A using CRISPR/Cas9. These reporter iPSCs are differentiated into 2D and 3D neural cultures to monitor long-term neuronal maturation. Green fluorescence dynamics are analyzed by immunostaining and flow cytometry.ResultsThe reporter is successfully integrated into the genome and reports paternal UBE3A expression. Fluorescence expression gradually reduces with UBE3A silencing in neurons as they mature. Expression patterns also reflect expected responses to molecules known to reactivate paternal UBE3A.DiscussionThis human-cell-based model can be used to screen novel therapeutic candidates,facilitate tracking of UBE3A expression in time and space,and study human-specific responses. However,its ability to restore UBE3A function cannot be studied using this model. Further research in human cells is needed to engineer systems with functional UBE3A to fully capture the therapeutic capabilities of novel candidates. View Publication

Degeneration of neuromuscular synapses is a key pathological feature of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA),yet cellular mechanisms underlying synapse dysfunction remain elusive. Here,we show that pharmacological stimulation with Roscovitine triggers the assembly of Munc13-1 release sites that relies on its local translation. Our findings show that presynaptic mRNA levels and local synthesis of Munc13-1 are diminished in motoneurons from SMA mice and hiPSC-derived motoneurons from SMA patients. Replacement of the Munc13-1 3’UTR with that of Synaptophysin1 rescues Munc13-1 mRNA transport in SMA motoneurons and restores the nanoscale architecture of presynaptic Munc13-1 release sites. Restoration of Munc13-1 levels leads to functional synaptic recovery in cultured SMA motoneurons. Furthermore,SMA mice cross-bred with a conditional knock-in mouse expressing modified Munc13-1 with a heterologous 3’UTR display attenuated synapse and neurodegeneration and improved motor function. Identifying Munc13-1 as an SMA modifier underscores the potential of targeting synapses to mitigate neuromuscular dysfunction in SMA. Defective neurotransmission is a hallmark of spinal muscular atrophy (SMA). Here,the authors show that local presynaptic Munc13-1synthesis is defective in SMA and that modification of the Munc13-1 mRNA rescues presynaptic architecture and excitability. View Publication