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BACKGROUND Human rhinoviruses (HRVs) are a major trigger of asthma exacerbations,with the bronchial epithelium being the major site of HRV infection and replication. Mast cells (MCs) play a key role in asthma where their numbers are increased in the bronchial epithelium with increasing disease severity. OBJECTIVE In view of the emerging role of MCs in innate immunity and increased localization to the asthmatic bronchial epithelium,we investigated whether HRV infection of MCs generated innate immune responses which were protective against infection. METHODS The LAD2 MC line or primary human cord blood-derived MCs (CBMCs) were infected with HRV or UV-irradiated HRV at increasing multiplicities of infection (MOI) without or with IFN-β or IFN-λ. After 24 h,innate immune responses were assessed by RT-qPCR and IFN protein release by ELISA. Viral replication was determined by RT-qPCR and virion release by TCID50 assay. RESULTS HRV infection of LAD2 MCs induced expression of IFN-β,IFN-λ and IFN-stimulated genes. However,LAD2 MCs were permissive for HRV replication and release of infectious HRV particles. Similar findings were observed with CBMCs. Neutralization of the type I IFN receptor had minimal effects on viral shedding,suggesting that endogenous type I IFN signalling offered limited protection against HRV. However,augmentation of these responses by exogenous IFN-β,but not IFN-λ,protected MCs against HRV infection. CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE MCs are permissive for the replication and release of HRV,which is prevented by exogenous IFN-β treatment. Taken together,these findings suggest a novel mechanism whereby MCs may contribute to HRV-induced asthma exacerbations. View Publication

Mast cells are tissue-resident immune cells that play a key role in inflammation and allergy. Here we show that interaction of mast cells with antibody-targeted cells induces the polarized exocytosis of their granules resulting in a sustained exposure of effector enzymes,such as tryptase and chymase,at the cell-cell contact site. This previously unidentified mast cell effector mechanism,which we name the antibody-dependent degranulatory synapse (ADDS),is triggered by both IgE- and IgG-targeted cells. ADDSs take place within an area of cortical actin cytoskeleton clearance in the absence of microtubule organizing centre and Golgi apparatus repositioning towards the stimulating cell. Remarkably,IgG-mediated degranulatory synapses also occur upon contact with opsonized Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites resulting in tryptase-dependent parasite death. Our results broaden current views of mast cell degranulation by revealing that human mast cells form degranulatory synapses with antibody-targeted cells and pathogens for dedicated secretion and defence. View Publication

Mast cells (MCs) play an important role in the regulation of protective adaptive immune responses against pathogens. However,it is still unclear whether MCs promote such host defense responses via direct effects on T cells or rather by modifying the functions of antigen-presenting cells. To identify the underlying mechanisms of the immunoregulatory capacity of MCs,we investigated the impact of MCs on dendritic cell (DC) maturation and function. We found that murine peritoneal MCs underwent direct crosstalk with immature DCs that induced DC maturation as evidenced by enhanced expression of costimulatory molecules. Furthermore,the MC/DC interaction resulted in the release of the T-cell modulating cytokines IFN-γ,IL-2,IL-6 and TGF-β into coculture supernatants and increased the IL-12p70,IFN-γ,IL-6 and TGF-β secretion of LPS-matured DCs. Such MC-primed" DCs subsequently induced efficient CD4+ T-cell proliferation. Surprisingly� View Publication

Autoantigen-specific regulatory immunity emerges in the spleen of mice recovering from experimental autoimmune uveitis (EAU),a murine model for human autoimmune uveoretinitis. This regulatory immunity provides induced tolerance to ocular autoantigen,and requires melanocortin 5 receptor (MC5r) expression on antigen presenting cells with adenosine 2 A receptor (A2Ar) expression on T cells. During EAU it is not well understood what roles MC5r and A2Ar have on promoting regulatory immunity. Cytokine profile analysis during EAU revealed MC5r and A2Ar each mediate distinct T cell responses,and are responsible for a functional regulatory immune response in the spleen. A2Ar stimulation at EAU onset did not augment this regulatory response,nor bypass the MC5r requirement to induce regulatory immunity. The importance of this pathway in human autoimmune uveitis was assayed. PBMC from uveitis patients were assayed for MC5r expression on monocytes and A2Ar on T cells,and comparison between uveitis patients and healthy controls had no significant difference. The importance for MC5r and A2Ar expression in EAU to promote the induction of protective regulatory immunity,and the expression of MC5r and A2Ar on human immune cells,suggests that it may be possible to utilize the melanocortin-adenosinergic pathways to induce protective immunity in uveitic patients. View Publication

Clonal expansion of B cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (B-CLL) occurs within lymphoid tissue pseudofollicles. IL-15,a stromal cell-associated cytokine found within spleens and lymph nodes of B-CLL patients,significantly boosts in vitro cycling of blood-derived B-CLL cells following CpG DNA priming. Both IL-15 and CpG DNA are elevated in microbe-draining lymphatic tissues,and unraveling the basis for IL-15-driven B-CLL growth could illuminate new therapeutic targets. Using CpG DNA-primed human B-CLL clones and approaches involving both immunofluorescent staining and pharmacologic inhibitors,we show that both PI3K/AKT and JAK/STAT5 pathways are activated and functionally important for IL-15→CD122/ɣc signaling in ODN-primed cells expressing activated pSTAT3. Furthermore,STAT5 activity must be sustained for continued cycling of CFSE-labeled B-CLL cells. Quantitative RT-PCR experiments with inhibitors of PI3K and STAT5 show that both contribute to IL-15-driven upregulation of mRNA for cyclin D2 and suppression of mRNA for DNA damage response mediators ATM,53BP1,and MDC1. Furthermore,protein levels of these DNA damage response molecules are reduced by IL-15,as indicated by Western blotting and immunofluorescent staining. Bioinformatics analysis of ENCODE chromatin immunoprecipitation sequencing data from cell lines provides insight into possible mechanisms for STAT5-mediated repression. Finally,pharmacologic inhibitors of JAKs and STAT5 significantly curtailed B-CLL cycling when added either early or late in a growth response. We discuss how the IL-15-induced changes in gene expression lead to rapid cycling and possibly enhanced mutagenesis. STAT5 inhibitors might be an effective modality for blocking B-CLL growth in patients. View Publication

The mechanisms by which neutralizing antibodies inhibit Marburg virus (MARV) are not known. We isolated a panel of neutralizing antibodies from a human MARV survivor that bind to MARV glycoprotein (GP) and compete for binding to a single major antigenic site. Remarkably,several of the antibodies also bind to Ebola virus (EBOV) GP. Single-particle EM structures of antibody-GP complexes reveal that all of the neutralizing antibodies bind to MARV GP at or near the predicted region of the receptor-binding site. The presence of the glycan cap or mucin-like domain blocks binding of neutralizing antibodies to EBOV GP,but not to MARV GP. The data suggest that MARV-neutralizing antibodies inhibit virus by binding to infectious virions at the exposed MARV receptor-binding site,revealing a mechanism of filovirus inhibition. View Publication

Typhoid fever caused by Salmonella enterica serovar (S.) Typhi differs in its clinical presentation from gastroenteritis caused by S. Typhimurium and other non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars. The different clinical presentations are attributed in part to the virulence-associated capsular polysaccharide (Vi antigen) of S. Typhi,which prevents phagocytes from triggering a respiratory burst by preventing antibody-mediated complement activation. Paradoxically,the Vi antigen is absent from S. Paratyphi A,which causes a disease that is indistinguishable from typhoid fever. Here,we show that evasion of the phagocyte respiratory burst by S. Paratyphi A required very long O antigen chains containing the O2 antigen to inhibit antibody binding. We conclude that the ability to avoid the phagocyte respiratory burst is a property distinguishing typhoidal from non-typhoidal Salmonella serovars that was acquired by S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi A independently through convergent evolution. View Publication

T cell homeostasis is crucial for maintaining an efficient and balanced T cell immunity. The interaction between TCR and self peptide (sp) MHC ligands is known to be the key driving force in this process,and it is believed to be functionally and mechanistically different from that initiated by the antigenic TCR stimulation. Yet,very little is known about the downstream signaling events triggered by this TCR-spMHC interaction and how they differ from those triggered by antigenic TCR stimulation. In this study,we show that T cell conditional ablation of MEKK3,a Ser/Thr kinase in the MAPK cascade,causes a significant reduction in peripheral T cell numbers in the conditional knockout mice,but does not perturb thymic T cell development and maturation. Using an adoptive mixed transfer method,we show that MEKK3-deficient T cells are severely impaired in lymphopenia-induced cell proliferation and survival. Interestingly,the Ag-induced T cell proliferation proceeds normally in the absence of MEKK3. Finally,we found that the activity of ERK1/2,but not p38 MAPK,was attenuated during the lymphopenia-driven response in MEKK3-deficient T cells. Together,these data suggest that MEKK3 may play a crucial selective role for spMHC-mediated T cell homeostasis. View Publication

Human melanoma cells express various tumour antigens that are recognized by CD8(+) cytotoxic T lymphocytes (CTLs) and elicit tumour-specific responses in vivo. However,natural and therapeutically enhanced CTL responses in melanoma patients are of limited efficacy. The mechanisms underlying CTL effector phase failure when facing melanomas are still largely elusive. Here we show that,on conjugation with CTL,human melanoma cells undergo an active late endosome/lysosome trafficking,which is intensified at the lytic synapse and is paralleled by cathepsin-mediated perforin degradation and deficient granzyme B penetration. Abortion of SNAP-23-dependent lysosomal trafficking,pH perturbation or impairment of lysosomal proteolytic activity restores susceptibility to CTL attack. Inside the arsenal of melanoma cell strategies to escape immune surveillance,we identify a self-defence mechanism based on exacerbated lysosome secretion and perforin degradation at the lytic synapse. Interfering with this synaptic self-defence mechanism might be useful in potentiating CTL-mediated therapies in melanoma patients. View Publication

BACKGROUND Many cancers,including melanoma,exclusively express constitutive proteasomes (cPs) and are unable to express immunoproteasomes (iPs). In contrast,mature DCs used for immunotherapy exclusively express iPs. Since proteasomes generate peptides presented by HLA class I molecules,we hypothesized that mature melanoma antigen-loaded DCs engineered to process antigens through cPs would be superior inducers of antimelanoma immunity in vivo. METHODS Subjects with metastatic melanoma were vaccinated with mature DCs transfected with RNAs encoding melanoma antigens MART1,MAGE-3,gp100,and tyrosinase. These DCs were derived from monocytes that were untransfected (Arm A; n = 4),transfected with control siRNA (Arm B; n = 3),or transfected with siRNAs targeting the 3 inducible iP subunits (Arm C; n = 5). RESULTS Vaccination stimulated antigen-specific T cell responses in all subjects,which peaked after 3-4 vaccinations,but remained elevated in Arm C subjects. Also in Arm C,circulating melanoma cell levels (as detected by quantitative PCR) fell,and T cell lytic activity against autologous melanoma was induced. In HLA-A2 subjects,CD8 T cells that bound tetramers loaded with cP-derived melanoma antigenic peptides were found in the peripheral blood only in Arm C subjects. Of 2 subjects with active disease (both in Arm C),one had a partial clinical response,while the other,who exhibited diffuse dermal and soft tissue metastases,had a complete response. CONCLUSION These results suggest that the efficacy of melanoma DC-based immunotherapy is enhanced when tumor antigen-loaded DCs used for vaccination express cPs. TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinicaltrials.gov NCT00672542. FUNDING Duke Clinical Research Institute/Duke Translational Medicine Institute,Duke Melanoma Consortium,and Duke University Department of Surgery. View Publication

Human B cell antigen-receptor (BCR) repertoires reflect repeated exposures to evolving influenza viruses; new exposures update the previously generated B cell memory (Bmem) population. Despite structural similarity of hemagglutinins (HAs) from the two groups of influenza A viruses,cross-reacting antibodies (Abs) are uncommon. We analyzed Bmem compartments in three unrelated,adult donors and found frequent cross-group BCRs,both HA-head directed and non-head directed. Members of a clonal lineage from one donor had a BCR structure similar to that of a previously described Ab,encoded by different gene segments. Comparison showed that both Abs contacted the HA receptor-binding site through long heavy-chain third complementarity determining regions. Affinities of the clonal-lineage BCRs for historical influenza-virus HAs from both group 1 and group 2 viruses suggested that serial responses to seasonal influenza exposures had elicited the lineage and driven affinity maturation. We propose that appropriate immunization regimens might elicit a comparably broad response. View Publication

During persistent murine cytomegalovirus (MCMV) infection,the T cell response is maintained at extremely high intensity for the life of the host. These cells closely resemble human CMV-specific cells,which compose a major component of the peripheral T cell compartment in most people. Despite a phenotype that suggests extensive antigen-driven differentiation,MCMV-specific T cells remain functional and respond vigorously to viral challenge. We hypothesized that a low rate of antigen-driven proliferation would account for the maintenance of this population. Instead,we found that most of these cells divided only sporadically in chronically infected hosts and had a short half-life in circulation. The overall population was supported,at least in part,by memory T cells primed early in infection,as well as by recruitment of naive T cells at late times. Thus,these data show that memory inflation is maintained by a continuous replacement of short-lived,functional cells during chronic MCMV infection. View Publication